[See: Carnival Culture Index]

The Woman With The Alabaster Jar

Without women, nothing would be remembered. Without women, the collected songs, stories and adventures of all men - ramblers, knights and all the rest - would vanish into the darkness of the grave forever. Women are the Vessels of Life’s Renewal, the carriers of The Mysteries of Existence, manifesting the tales encoded in our DNA across the vastness of time, from one sweaty dirty generation on down to the next.

Using genetic analysis rather than inherited conglomerations of myth, scientists claim that all humans can be traced to a single common female ancestor, who is referred to as “Mitochondrial Eve”, on account of the fact that mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA) is usually passed down from the mother’s side to both daughters and sons. Mitochondrial Eve is believed to have lived some 140,000 somewhere in East Africa, but her story is still told in the blood and bones of each one of us.

Like many ancient cultures, Judaism is said to be passed through the mother’s side, or matrilineally. The reason being - according to some - a purely practical one: that, prior to the advent of genetic testing, it was impossible to determine with absolute certainty who the father of a child was. The history of humanity, then, could be viewed as a history of sex, as a history of family, as a history of woman’s role as carrier of the legacy and the many permutations it has taken through the ages.

Take My Wife, Please

Though their treatment as individuals has varied widely through time and space, it can be reasonably asserted that woman’s status as genetic vessel has made her an object of universal biological value across cultures {okay, not always}. Many ancient cultures the world over expected the groom to pay a prospective wife’s family a bride price, which could include money, livestock or other property (Mahr in Islam) The bride price acted as money down on a contractual agreement (marriage) between families. It was recognition both of the practical value of a woman to a man (the establishment/continuance of family) and of - in essence - exclusive property rights of the husband over the wife. A high price also ensured that only a man of proper social-economic standing (who could raise the money) could marry into a woman’s family.

Judaism evolved the Ketubah, a pre-nuptial agreement which “…states that the husband commits to provide food, clothing and marital relations to his wife, and that he will pay a specified sum of money if he divorces her. If he dies, leaving her a widow, the ketubah amount is the first charge on his estate.” The dower or morning gift served a similar purpose in many European countries, as a gift given by the husband in the event that his wife out-lived him (not to be confused with a dowry, the gift of wealth or real estate brought by a woman to her husband, making her a more attractive bride). The point is not just that a woman becomes the property of her husband at marriage though, but that he also has a responsibility to her {See also: King’s Peace}. The ancient Hebrews were fairly innovative in regard to protection of the woman, though it’s perhaps a bit difficult to see through modern eyes:

Exodus 22:16-17 says: “If a man seduces a virgin who is not pledged to be married and sleeps with her, he must pay the bride-price, and she shall be his wife. If her father absolutely refuses to give her to him, he must still pay the bride-price for virgins.” NIV […]

Deuteronomy 22:28-29 states similarly: “If a man find a damsel that is a virgin, which is not betrothed, and lay hold on her, and lie with her, and they be found; then the man that lay with her shall give unto the damsel’s father fifty shekels of silver, and she shall be his wife; because he hath humbled her, he may not put her away all his days.” KJV

{See also: shotgun wedding} They were altogether serious about the financial transaction underlying marriage, the best example of which is the Levirate marriage, in which if a husband died without producing offspring, his wife was expected to marry one of his brothers so that the line might be continued (ie, so that the property stays in the family).

One Of Sixteen Vestal Virgins

The ability of a bridegroom to raise a bridal price is essentially a display of the groom’s ability to provide for his woman financially through-out the course of their marriage. Wealth becomes a very concrete symbol of being able to maintain a high standard of living, health & well-being and social status for a woman and for their family. If a man cannot provide these things, he ceases being a desirable mate. In the Western World especially, prior to the advent of Feminism and the “Liberated Woman”, very few alternatives existed to this system of husband-as-provider.

In Roman law, a woman was completely dependent on her male relatives. If married, she and her property passed into the power of her husband; if unmarried, she was (unless a vestal virgin) under the perpetual tutelage of her father during his life, and after his death, control passed to her nearest blood relations. If there were no close blood relations, the extended family would be responsible for her upkeep.

The wife was the purchased property of her husband, and was, like a slave, acquired only for his benefit. A woman could not exercise any civil or public office. A woman could not continue a family, for she was caput et finis familiae suae. She could not be a witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could not adopt or be adopted, or make a will or contract. […] Furthermore, women could not obtain Roman citizenship, which provided exemption from scourging and crucifixion, gave the right to appeal before Caesar, and provided legal immunity from jurisdictions outside Rome.

The Vestal Virgins were the only female members of the priesthood in Ancient Rome, and their duty was tending the sacred hearth fire of the goddess Vesta. The office of Vestal Virgin was highly esteemed. Girls were selected and entered into service before puberty, and committed to thirty years of celibacy, after which they were allowed to marry if they chose, or continue in service. Unlike most Roman women, Vestals were free to own property, make a will and vote. Their presence was routinely required at numerous public ceremonies, at which they held a place of great honor. They were considered to be of incorruptible character, were entrusted with important state documents, could free condemned prisoners and slaves merely by touching them, and the penalty for injuring them was death. Marriages to former Vestal Virgins were highly esteemed, though they meant that they became legally bound as any other ordinary woman under Roman Law. {See also: Naditu}

Though it was by no means universal, widows in later European cultures sometimes aquired legal privileges not dissimilar to that of the Vestal Virgins, insofaras they were allowed to inherit and hold property and continue their husband’s business. Sometimes widows also inherit positions of state held by their husband as well. Alternatively, widows whose husbands died with no dower, ketubah or similar often became charity cases. And in traditional Hinduism, of course, widows were supposed to perform sati or suttee: self-immolation upon their husband’s funeral pyre.

Hierodulic Servitude

Though the Vestal Virgins were required to maintain celibacy, cults of other religions have long maintained priestesses who acted as temple prostitutes. Frazer wrote, in his Golden Bough:

In Cyprus it appears that before marriage all women were formerly obliged by custom to prostitute themselves to strangers at the sanctuary of the goddess, whether she went by the name of Aphrodite, Astarte, or what not. Similar customs prevailed in many parts of Western Asia. Whatever its motive, the practice was clearly regarded, not as an orgy of lust, but as a solemn religious duty performed in the service of that great Mother Goddess of Western Asia whose name varied, while her type remained constant, from place to place. Thus at Babylon every woman, whether rich or poor, had once in her life to submit to the embraces of a stranger at the temple of Mylitta, that is, of Ishtar or Astarte, and to dedicate to the goddess the wages earned by this sanctified harlotry. The sacred precinct was crowded with women waiting to observe the custom. Some of them had to wait there for years. At Heliopolis or Baalbec in Syria, famous for the imposing grandeur of its ruined temples, the custom of the country required that every maiden should prostitute herself to a stranger at the temple of Astarte, and matrons as well as maids testified their devotion to the goddess in the same manner. The emperor Constantine abolished the custom, destroyed the temple, and built a church in its stead. In Phoenician temples women prostituted themselves for hire in the service of religion, believing that by this conduct they propitiated the goddess and won her favour.

In India, a similar practice still continues with the devadasis, young girls committed to temple service, who are considered to be “married” to a deity, practice Bharatanatyam - a form of traditional temple dance, and who engage in sexual relations outside that of marriage. {See also: Hieros Gamos}

Although the original devadasis were brahmacharinis their entire life, even the contemporary sexual aspects of the rituals that accompany dedication are now considered by many Hindus to be exploitative and not mandatory. Nevertheless this practice continues unabated in some places where a devadasi would usually acquire a “patron” after her “deflowering ceremony”. Patronship in a majority of cases is achieved at the time of the dedication ceremony itself. The patron who secures this right of spending the first night with the girl can pay a fixed sum of money to maintain a permanent liaison with the devadasi, pay to maintain a relationship for a fixed amount of time, or terminate the liaison after the deflowering ceremony. A permanent liaison with a patron does not bar the girl from entertaining other clients, unless he specifies otherwise. […]

Traditionally, no stigma was attached to the devadasi or to her children, and other members of their caste received them on terms of equality. The children of a devadasi enjoyed legitimacy and devadasis themselves were outwardly indistinguishable from married women of their own community.

Furthermore, a devadasi was believed to be immune from widowhood and was called akhanda saubhagyavati. Since she was wedded to a divine deity, she was supposed to be one of the especially welcome guests at weddings, and was regarded as bearer of fortune.

The parallel tradition in Nepal was that of the deuki. {See also: Flirty Fishing, child hierodulic servitude, ritual servitude, human trafficking, Comfort Women}

From Crack Whores To Courtesans

Ancient Greece, likewise, had a tiered system of prostitution, at the top of which sat the temple-dedicated prostitutes, the hierodules of Aphrodite in Corinth (not as prevalent in Greece as elsewhere in the Levant). At the bottom were the pornai, female slaves of Metic or “barbarian” (non-Greek) origin, the held property of pimps - which was an ordinary profession in Ancient Greece - and typically worked in brothels frequented by the poor and sailors.

Independent prostitutes who worked the street were on the next higher level. Besides directly displaying their charms to potential clients they had recourse to publicity; sandals with marked soles have been found which left an imprint that stated ΑΚΟΛΟΥΘΙ / AKOLOUTHI (”Follow me”) on the ground. […]

These prostitutes had various origins: Metic women who could not find other work, poor widows, and older pornai who had succeeded in buying back their freedom (often on credit). In Athens they had to be registered with the city and pay a tax.

Above them were the hetaerae, courtesans with a highly cultivated education and sensibility who occupied a unique legal status in Greek culture, independent and in charge of their own affairs. This practice continued in Europe, and has direct analogs throughout the world:

A courtesan in mid-16th century usage referred to a mistress, especially one associated with wealthy, powerful, or upper-class men who provided luxuries and status in exchange for her companionship. In Renaissance Europe, courtesans played an important role in upper-class society, sometimes taking the place of wives at social functions. As it was customary during this time for royal couples to lead separate lives—commonly marrying simply to preserve bloodlines and to secure political alliances—men would often seek sexual gratification and companionship from a courtesan. This was a large practice in Mughal India until the British Raj, where they were commonly known as tawaif and were often also skilled dancers. […]

The cortigiane oneste [upper-class courtesan] were usually well-educated and worldly (sometimes even more so than the average upper-class woman), and often held simultaneous careers as performers or artists. They were typically chosen on the basis of their “breeding”—social and conversational skills, intelligence, common-sense, and companionship—as well as their physical attributes. It was usually their wit and personality that set them apart from regular women. They were prostitutes in the sense that sex was one of their obligations, but unlike the average prostitute, sex constituted only a facet of the courtesan’s array of services. For example, they were expected to be well-dressed and ready to engage in a variety of topics ranging from art to music to politics.

{See also: concubine, mistress, polygamy}

In addition to it’s connections to religious worship, prostitution also has close classical ties - as described above - to entertainers in general. In addition to the Mughal Muslim tawaif, Japan had it’s geisha and oiran. Geishas undergo years of training, but are not prostitutes. They “…study traditional instruments like the shamisen, shakuhachi (bamboo flute), and drums, as well as traditional songs, Japanese traditional dance, tea ceremony, literature and poetry.” Wikipedia continues:

Geisha are entertainers, their purpose being to entertain their customer, be it by reciting verse, playing musical instruments, or engaging in light conversation. Geisha engagements may include flirting with men and playful innuendos; however, clients know that nothing more can be expected.

While geisha are not involved in prostitution, the oiran - their predecessors - were. Oiran were typically of much higher class and functioned with much greater pomp and ritual. The main difference between the two - to the casual observer, was that geisha tied their elaborate garments in the back and oiran tied theirs in the front to facilitate frequent removal. Prostitution, however, is illegal today in Japan as of a 1956 law barring it’s practice. {See also: kisaeng in Korea, Enjo kosai (compensated dating) in Japan, Companion caste on the Firefly sci-fi television show}

Sexual Taboos & Social Norms

Treatment of women and the act of sex in general, whether for procreation or recreation, varies a great deal from culture to culture. In fact, the customs, rituals, roles and institutions surrounding sex and marriage are one of the very things which makes a culture unique. Each community develops an identity according to what is and is not acceptable behavior amongst its members. Because of the primacy of its biological importance, sexuality is frequently the carrier of heavy cultural taboos, narrowing out of all possible sexual options and lifestyle configurations parameters of behavior enforced by legal authorities, religious prohibitions and other social institutions. Members who violate these customs may be reprimanded, punished, or ostracized altogether: being exiled, isolated or stripped of the membership privileges afforded to individuals within that community. The threat of loss of status within the community group, coupled with deep and usually unconscious cultural conditioning and imprinting in the form of guilt and shame often becomes the final arbiter of sexually normal behavior within a given community.

Prostitutes, whether they be male or female, often become the unwitting targets of repressed cultural attitudes (often exploding into real violence), since they are operating on or past the limits of acceptable sexual behavior. Prostitutes in many cultures are also often outcasts (literally: outside the caste system, or at its lowest rung) in addition to being outlaws. Interestingly, the word “harlot“, which is now used more commonly to describe a wanton woman, once meant something else altogether - pointing to the danger that communities felt towards outsiders operating according to alternative value systems:

The word is first recorded in English in a work written around the beginning of the 13th century, meaning “a man of no fixed occupation, vagabond, beggar,” and soon afterwards meant “male lecher.” Already in the 14th century it appears as a deprecatory word for a woman, though exactly how this meaning developed from the male sense is not clear. For a time the word could also refer to a juggler or jester of either sex, but by the close of the 17th century its usage referring to males had disappeared.

Burlesques & Cabarets in La Belle Epoque

The connection between vagrancy, prostitution, outsider systems of morality and the entertainment industry continues throughout history, with some noteworthy stop-overs in Europe. Burlesque is thought by some historians to be a direct descendent of the Commedia dell’arte, a traditional form of improvisational Italian street theatre utilizing stock characters and situations, ranging from the 16th to 18th centuries.

With its origins in nineteenth century music hall entertainments and vaudeville, in the early twentieth century burlesque emerged as a populist blend of satire, performance art, and adult entertainment, that featured strip tease and broad comedy acts that derived their name from the low comedy aspects of the literary genre known as burlesque. […] Put simply, burlesque means “in an upside down style”. Like its cousin, commedia dell’arte, burlesque turns social norms head over heels.

Burlesques found fertile soil in the Belle Epoque of France, where they became a staple of the Bohemian lifestyle through cabarets such as the Moulin Rouge and the Folies Bergere.

The term bohemian was first used in the nineteenth century to describe the untraditional lifestyles of marginalized and impoverished artists, writers, musicians, and actors in major European cities. Bohemians were associated with unorthodox or antiestablishment political or social viewpoints, which were often expressed through extramarital sexual relations, frugality, and/or “voluntary poverty”.

The term emerged in France in the 1800s when artists and creators began to concentrate in the lower-rent, lower class gypsy neighbourhoods. The term “Bohemian” reflects a belief, widely held in France at the time, that the Gypsies had come from Bohemia.

The showgirls of Vegas casinos (Vegas being one of the few jurisdictions within the United States where prostitution is legalized) are direct descendents of the burlesque/cabaret tradition, as are modern strip clubs.

Marriage As Institutionalized Prostitution

No matter how you slice it historically, women are valuable to men on a very pragmatic level: both for sheer sexual pleasure and for genetic reproduction. Whether it is in the form of a dower, a bride price, a kept mistress, a paid prostitute or dollars stuffed in a g-string, men are somehow willing to sacrifice value (money) to or for rights to physical enjoyment of women. Looking at our animal cousins reveals much similar behavior:

A study by Platt, Khera and Deaner at Duke University North Carolina, showed that male monkeys will give up privileges (in this case, juice, which was highly valued), to be allowed to see a female monkey’s hindquarters.

Deaner and his team reported that monkeys would take a juice cut to look at powerful males’ faces or the perineum of a female, but to persuade the monkeys to stare at subordinate males, the researchers had to bribe them with larger drinks. “Virtually all [male] monkeys will give up juice to see female hindquarters … they really value the images.”

Some sex-positive Feminists have come to much the same conclusions in the post-Sexual Revolution era, tracing the roots of monogamous marriage itself back to - essentially - prostitution on the parts of our hominid ancestors.

At one time, early humans were promiscuous. Like our closest living relatives, the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orangutan, they were pansexual; that is, prehistoric women and men engaged in sexual activities with all other group members, female and male, young and old. […] In the 193 species of living primates, fatherhood and the two-parent family unit are literally all but unknown. Most primate males live as what primatologists call “vagabonds,” in all-male groups or hunting parties called “Brotherhoods,” or “Bachelorhoods.” And so it always was for the human primate. That is, until the change from small-brained mature infants to large-brained immature infants. Now the burden of childrearing was so great that females needed extra help in order to protect and feed their young. It is out of this simple need that we find the origins of prostitution. […]

Looking around them, the females found a large untapped work force in the nomadic groups of vagabond males. The question was, how to entice these independent creatures into giving up their wandering lifestyle in order to serve the interests of the females. The answer was not long in coming: the females would enlist the aid of the footloose males by offering them sex in exchange for food and protection. This arrangement, well-known to anthropologists as “The Sex Contract,” was, of course, eagerly participated in by the males. The more sex the women were willing to provide, the more food and protection they received from the obliging males.

Joseph Campbell once said that the notion of Romantic Love was the greatest invention the Western world ever came up with, because it became a cultural stepping stone for overcoming the notion of woman-as-property. He may be right, but from where I’m standing, we still have a long long way to go. Maybe the next generation will finally figure it all out. Or the one after. Or the one after that. Thank God for women, for life in all its permutations, and for endless second chances. May we finally remember and pass on lessons learned the hard way.

[Dedicated to Autumn at Ritz Cabaret, Fells Point, Baltimore]